1%) supplementation, but did not change with placebo supplementation. The mechanisms for these benefits of HMB on selleck compound aerobic performance and fat loss are poorly understood. However, recent evidence demonstrated that HMB supplementation improves fatty acid oxidation, adenosine monophosphate

kinase (AMPK), Sirt1 (Silent information Cilengitide chemical structure regulator transcripts) and Sirt3 activity in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and in skeletal muscle cells [66]. To elaborate, the Sirt proteins belong to a class of NAD+− dependent protein deacetylases involved in energy metabolism, which sense energy balance through changes in the NAD+/NADH ratio. Sirt proteins modify the acetylation level of histones and proteins [67]. Adenosine mono-phosphate protein kinase (AMPK) is also a sensor of energy balance, but does so through changes in AMP/ATP ratios [68]. Collectively,

these proteins act to improve mitochondrial biogenesis, fat oxidation, energy metabolism, and the reactive oxygen defense system [67–69]. Consequently, this recent evidence has shown Vactosertib purchase that HMB supplementation increases mitochondrial biogenesis and fat oxidation [70]. Exactly how HMB induces changes in Sirt proteins, AMPK, and mitochondria remains unclear. However, these results could have implications for obesity, insulin resistance, and diabetes, as well as for athletes seeking to improve body composition and aerobic performance. Proposed mechanisms of action Skeletal muscle protein turnover is the product of skeletal muscle protein synthesis and skeletal muscle protein degradation [71]. When protein synthesis exceeds protein degradation, there is a net synthesis of skeletal muscle protein. However, when protein degradation exceeds protein synthesis, there is a net breakdown of skeletal muscle protein. HMB has been shown to affect both protein synthesis and degradation of pathways in skeletal muscle and the effect of HMB on these pathways is summarized below and in Figure 3. Figure 3 HMB’s proposed mechanisms

of action. Protein synthesis HMB has been shown to stimulate protein synthesis in skeletal muscle [72]. This has been hypothesized to occur through stimulation of mTOR, a protein kinase responsive to mechanical, hormonal, and nutritional stimuli. Mammalian target of rapamycin has a central role in the control of cell growth, primarily by controlling mRNA translation efficiency [6]. Indeed, previous studies have observed that HMB supplementation increases phosphorylation of mTOR and its downstream targets ribosomal protein S6 kinase (S6K) and eukaryotic initiation factor-4 binding protein-1 (4EBP1) [73, 74]. The growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) axis may also play a key role in the stimulation of protein synthesis, and it is possible HMB may stimulate protein synthesis through changes in the activity of GH/IGF-1 axis. Gerlinger-Romero et al. [75] observed an increase in pituitary GH mRNA and protein expression after one month of HMB supplementation.