[142] Poor intrauterine growth has been extensively studied in animals,[143] and thus, the time is ripe for more extensive integration of the information Ivacaftor in humans and animals. In related primates, IUGR has been induced using various levels of maternal nutrient restriction[144]

and surgical manipulation of placental blood supply[145] among other interventions. In animals with litters, there is evidence that the fetuses placed at a distance from the main uterine artery are smaller.[146] In pigs, a proportion of piglets in a litter is naturally small.[146, 147] In mice, genetic models of deficiency in key molecules such as eNOS have been generated and pups of these pregnancies show IUGR,[148] while their mothers do not show a characteristic mid-gestation drop in systemic blood pressure.[149] In mice and rats, bilateral uterine artery ligation late in gestation leads to fetal intrauterine growth retardation, neurologic deficiency, and metabolic derangement.[150] Uterine artery ligation at mid-gestation (~day 30 of 70) in guinea pigs also produces growth restriction.[151] Ligation of utero-placental vessels in rabbits on day 25 of a 31-day gestation produces small pups that show deficiencies in neurobehavioral development.[152]

Administration of L-NAME on days 24–28 of gestation is also used to model IUGR in a rabbits, and this model results in growth-retarded fetuses and decreased flow, as determined by 3D power Doppler Angiography, GDC941 in each utero-placental unit.[153] In sheep, there are several models of fetal growth restriction.[109] These include maternal calorie restriction[154] emobilization of the umbilico-placental arteries[155] and disruption of the uterine epithelium in close contact with trophoblast in the placenta.[156] Maternal hyperthermia on days 35–40 of gestation (total gestation ~147 days) has been shown to produce asymmetrical growth restriction

and decreased placental mass,[157-159] and abnormal umbilical arterial and aortic Doppler velocimetry,[160] while placement of the mother in hypoxic conditions also limits fetal growth.[161] Some breeds of sheep are more amenable to these manipulations than others,[109] suggesting that with advanced technology and genome sequencing, these C59 cell line animals may be used to examine gene–gene and gene–environment interaction in the development of this disease. Human pregnancy is less efficient than many other species, as nearly 50% of conceptions fail.[28] In humans, recurrent miscarriage is a complex syndrome that likely incorporates several types of defects in genetics, implantation, placentation, metabolism, and hormonal support of the conceptus[28, 162] or stress.[163] Thoroughbred horses[164] and commercial pork breeds[165] also have a high rate of spontaneous abortion. One idea that drives the field is that disregulation of maternal innate or adaptive immunity initiates or contributes significantly to the disease.