Furthermore, after 3 days of culture significantly reduced apoptosis rates were observed in CXCL4 or S1P stimulated cells, but no significant differences could be observed between PTX-treated and untreated cells (Fig. 7B). From these data we would Alvelestat conclude that CXCL4-induced monocyte functions are transduced independently from surface-expressed Gi protein-coupled S1P receptors. In this study, we could show for the first time that CXCL4 regulates genes involved in S1P metabolism in monocytes, and that at the level of

mRNA anti-apoptotic SPHK1 is rapidly up-regulated. In contradiction to other authors who described that SPHK2 is not detectable in monocytes or macrophages 14–16, we could demonstrate that monocytes indeed express SPHK2 although to a much lower degree than SPHK1 (Fig. 1). This discrepancy might be explained by the techniques used for detection

(conventional PCR or northern blot analysis instead of RQ-PCR as used in our approach). For its activation SphK has to be targeted to the plasma membrane 18, 19. In monocytes stimulation with CXCL4 results in a rapid and biphasic translocation of SphK1 into the membrane fractions (Fig. 2A), as well as increase in SphK1 enzymatic activity (Fig. 2B). The role of SphK in the activation of myeloid cells (neutrophils and macrophages) has been documented previously by several authors 15, 20–23. In these reports, the authors either described a rapid activation (within 15 s–2 min) 15, 20, 21, or a more delayed activation selleck chemicals (after 15–60 min) of Cyclooxygenase (COX) SphK 20, 22, 23. Using stimuli which

are known to induce in myeloid cells rapid functions such as ROS formation (fMLP, PAF, or C5a), SphK was seen to become activated within seconds, while stimulation of the cells with TNF or LPS, leading to the induction of long lasting cellular responses like survival or cytokine release, lead to a delayed activation of SphK. To our knowledge, we here report for the first time that SphK can be activated in a biphasic manner in monocytes. This may explain the ability of CXCL4 to induce both, acute and delayed cellular functions in these cells. Using high concentrations of exogenous S1P (50 μM) as well as by the use of SKI or SphK1-specific siRNA we demonstrate here that SphK and its product S1P are involved in CXCL4-stimulated ROS formation, as well as in the rescue from apoptosis (Fig. 3 and 6). S1P is a unique signaling molecule in that it can act both as an extracellular ligand for G protein-coupled receptors and as an intracellular second messenger 11, 24–26. A few studies have suggested that suppression of apoptosis by S1P is mediated via its intracellular action, many others have argued in favor of the involvement of S1P membrane receptors, making this a controversial area (for review, see Hla et al. 27). In 1999 and 2003 Olivera et al.