In STZ + HFD mice, there are several reports describing vascular complications such as cardiovascular dysfunction [21], retinopathy [22], neuropathy [23] and nephropathy [5, 24]. Treatment of wild-type mice with STZ and HFD synergistically increases albuminuria [5] and expands www.selleckchem.com/products/torin-1.html mesangial area (Fig. 1). Induction of diabetes by STZ causes a marked increase in urine volume and creatinine clearance of normal diet-fed and HFD-fed animals, respectively, suggesting that glomerular hyperfiltration has occurred. On the other hand, HFD treatment reduces urine volume and creatinine clearance in STZ mice (Fig. 1), suggesting that HFD is not causing more hyperfiltration but is causing non-hemodynamic actions which will be discussed

below. Fig. 1 Effects of STZ and/or HFD upon mesangial expansion (a), urine volume (b) and creatinine clearance (c) in wild-type mice. nSTZ-ND non STZ-normal diet, nSTZ-HFD non STZ-high fat diet, STZ-ND STZ-normal

diet, STZ-HFD STZ-high fat diet. Data are mean ± SEM. n = 4–11. *p < 0.01, **p < 0.001. Modified from Kuwabara and others [5] A-ZIP/F-1 lipoatrophic diabetic mice A-ZIP/F-1 mice are a genetic mouse model of lipoatrophic diabetes, characterized CYC202 datasheet by severe insulin resistance, dyslipidemia including hypertriglyceridemia and high free fatty acids, and fatty liver [25, 26]. This model is based upon dominant-negative expression of B-ZIP transcription factors of both C/EBP and Jun families under the control of aP2 enhancer/promoter, causing paucity of adipose tissue. A-ZIP/F-1 mice may serve as a useful tool for studying DN, because they manifest severe nephrotic syndrome and typical histopathological renal lesions which are glomerular hypertrophy, diffuse and

selleck chemicals llc pronounced mesangial expansion and accumulation of extracellular matrix [27]. Notably, these renal changes are reversible to some extent by replacement therapy almost with a fat-derived hormone leptin [27]. Other mouse models There are a few other diabetic-hyperlipidemic mouse models such as non-obese diabetic mice or Ins2 Akita diabetic mice combined with HFD feeding [28, 29], but their renal involvement has not been characterized well. Regardless of the models described above, differences in genetic backgrounds critically affect glucose and lipid metabolism among mouse strains [30]. Furthermore, even similar levels of hyperglycemia cause distinct renal changes among different strains and species. For instance, the DBA/2 strain is highly susceptible to DN, whereas the C57BL/6 strain is relatively resistant [31–33]. In addition, since cholesteryl ester transfer protein is inactive in rodents, HDL is the dominant lipoprotein in mice [34]. Apolipoprotein B in rodents also differs from that in humans [35]. Molecules involved in glucolipotoxicity in the kidney and pancreatic β cells Although glucotoxicity and lipotoxicity were originally proposed as independent concepts, Prentki et al. reported a novel concept of glucolipotoxicity in pancreatic β cells in 1996.