Akt activation plays a key role in cell proliferation, cell cycle progression, and apoptosis [10]; thus, PI3K/Akt signaling is important for cell survival. Panax ginseng Meyer is one of the most popular herbal medicines in Korea, and has long been used in Asian countries for stimulating immunity and inhibiting

various cancers [11], [12] and [13]. Ginsenosides are active compounds present in ginseng that are known to have antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities [14]. Ginsenoside Rb1, a known phytoestrogen, shows anti-inflammatory activity in smooth muscle cells [15] and inhibits interleukin-1β-induced apoptosis in human chondrocytes [16]. Ginsenoside Rg3 exerts neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidative effects [17] and [18]. Although the role of ginseng in regulating the development of cancer is well defined, the mechanism by which it selleck inhibitor protects brain cells from oxidative stress is not well understood. Recent studies have revealed that ginseng upregulates ER-β expression in vitro and in vivo [17] and [19]. Previously, we reported that Korean Red Ginseng (KRG)-induced ER-β expression inhibits oxidative stress-induced apoptosis

in mouse brain and SK-N-SH neuroblastoma cells by inhibiting PADI4 expression [17]. However, the downstream signaling effector molecules of ER-β have not been explored. Thus, the aims of this study were to identify signaling effector molecules immediately downstream of ERβ and to understand how KRG-induced ER-β expression regulates oxyclozanide apoptosis via PI3K/Akt signaling FK228 datasheet in oxidative stressed brain cells. Human neuroblastoma SK-N-SH cells (catalog number HTB-11; ATCC, Manassas, VI, USA) were cultured in RPMI 1640 (Lonza, Walkersville, MD, USA) media containing 10% FBS, 1% penicillin-streptomycin (10,000 U penicillin/mL, 10,000 μg streptomycin/mL), 1mM HEPES, 1mM sodium pyruvate, 4.5 g/L glucose, 1.5 g/L bicarbonate, and 2mM L-glutamine at 37°C, and 5% CO2. KRG extract was manufactured by Korea Ginseng Corporation (Seoul,

Korea) by steaming and drying 6-year-old roots from Panax ginseng Meyer and analyzed as described previously [17]. The ginsenoside content of KRG extracts used in this study was: Rg1 0.71 mg/g, Re 0.93 mg/g, Rf 1.21 mg/g, Rh1 0.78 mg/g, Rg2(s) 1.92 mg/g, Rg2(r) 1.29 mg/g, Rb1 4.62 mg/g, Rc 2.41 mg/g, Rb2 1.83 mg/g, Rd 0.89 mg/g, Rg3(s) 2.14 mg/g, and Rg3(r) 0.91 mg/g. Specific inhibitors of ER-β (PHTPP: catalog number sc-204191) and Akt (inhibitor VIII; catalog number sc-2002048) were purchased from Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc. (Santa Cruz, CA, USA). The PI3K-specific inhibitor LY294002 (catalog number L9908) was purchased from Sigma–Aldrich (St Louis, MO, USA). SK-N-SH cells were treated with KRG extract for 48 h and subsequently treated with 5μM PHTPP [20], 80μM LY294002 [21], or 50μM Akt inhibitor VIII for 5 h.